por What was the Second Militarism?
He Second Militarism of Peru It was a historical period characterized by the presence of military leaders in power. This stage began in 1883, after the Peruvian defeat against Chile in the War of the Pacific, and lasted until 1894, when a civil war ended with the victory and rise to the presidency of Nicolás de Piérola.
The defeat in the conflict with Chile left Peru in a very unstable situation. Its economy, which had previously had problems, worsened considerably. In addition, the country’s morale suffered a major blow. In the absence of renowned civilian figures who could take charge of the recovery, it was the military leaders who assumed power.
At first, the country was divided between the «men of Montan», supporters of Miguel Iglesias, and «the men in red kepi», followers of General Andrés A. Cáceres, the hero of the resistance. The former assumed the presidency for a few months, until he was overthrown by the latter.
After six presidential terms, the Second Militarism came to an end. The stay of the military in power left a legacy of reconstruction in some areas, although at the cost, as was the case of the economy, of becoming dependent on foreign capital.
Causes of Second Militarism
The main cause of the Second Militarism was the Peruvian defeat against Chile in the War of the Pacific.
This period is divided into two stages: the first was marked by the dominance of the «blue» military led by Miguel Iglesias between 1884 and 1885, while the second was dominated by the «red» military, supporters of General Andrés A. Cáceres, between 1886 and 1895.
The lack of important figures among the civilians meant that it was the military who assumed the task of recovering the country from the ravages caused by the war.
War with Chile
The Pacific War prompted the reappearance of caudillismo in Peru and, with it, militarism. According to Jorge Basadre, a Peruvian historian, this new militarism was a kind of military claim after the defeat against the Chileans.
Peru had suffered a serious economic crisis during the 1870s. The banking system was practically bankrupt in 1879 and sectors such as commerce, mining and agriculture barely survived.
The war made the situation even worse and, when it ended, there was an urgent need to face its reconstruction in all areas. However, its civil society was demoralized and unstructured, and there was no major political figure who could take over the government.
On January 1, 1883, Miguel Iglesias, one of the military leaders defeated by the Chileans, was named Regenerative President of the Republic.
Four days later, the Assembly granted him powers to negotiate peace with Chile. This mandate was not recognized by figures as important as Piérola or Cáceres. Iglesias finally signed the surrender of Peru through the treaties of Ancón.
Economic aspect
The Peruvian economy was in a worrisome situation since before the war. In 1876, the country had declared bankruptcy and declared a moratorium on its large foreign debt.
Because of the war, Peru lost its main productive industries, its most important natural resources, its communication routes were destroyed and trade contracted. Inflation grew unstoppably and its external debt, especially that contracted with the English, was unpayable.
As in the social and political aspect, Peru’s economy needed new policies in order to recover. Without civil leaders and with the oligarchy ruined, it was the military who tried it.
Characteristics of the Second Militarism
Peruvian historian Jorge Basadre affirms that it was the weakness of civil society at a very delicate moment for the country that caused the military to assume power.
Political dominance of warlords
The characteristic that defines the Second Militarism in Peru was the return of the military leaders to power. Basadre affirms that, unlike on previous occasions, this return took place at an adverse situation for them, since they had been defeated by the Chileans.
Despite the fact that these soldiers had led the defeated army, at that time they were the only ones strong enough to exercise power.
Civil wars
The Second Militarism period began and ended with two civil wars. The first confronted the supporters of Miguel Iglesias, the president who had signed the surrender to Chile, and those of Andrés A. Cáceres, a military man who opposed the concessions made to the Chileans.
Cáceres was the winner of this confrontation and ended up occupying the presidency after a brief period in which Peru was governed by the Council of Ministers.
The second civil war began in 1894, just after Cáceres was elected to the presidency for the second time. Nicolás de Piérola led the offensive against the military and, in 1895, ended up defeating him. With this result, the Second Militarism ended.
new economic techniques
The rulers of the Second Militarism undertook a series of reforms to try to improve the disastrous economic situation. Among the measures taken was the development of the country’s natural resources for export. With this, a system based on the exploitation of resources and native labor began.
The appearance of new economic resources made it possible to speed up the recovery. Rubber exploitation began in the jungle and oil began to be extracted on the north coast. Likewise, the production of sugar and cotton reappeared.
debt problems
The Peruvian external debt, which was already very high before the war with Chile, became one of the main economic problems for the militarist governments. The cost of the debt after the war amounted to almost 37 million pounds sterling, which meant an annual payment of two and a half million.
British creditors demanded that Peru pay the debts after the signing of the Treaty of Ancón. However, the country did not have the resources to do so and in fact needed more capital to get its exports back on track.
To solve the problem, the government of Andrés A. Cáceres signed the Grace contract, by which Peru ceded control of its most important productive resources to British creditors: guano and the railways. In exchange, the country was free of debt.
Passage of the Grace contract in Congress was not easy. After calling three extraordinary Congresses, in July 1889 Cáceres ended up expelling the opponents in order to win the vote.
The British then formed the Peruvian Corporation in order to better control the resources they had received.
Consequences of the Second Militarism
Emergence of political parties
Since its independence, Peruvian society had not consolidated a solid political class. Until the war with Chile, only one political party had been founded, the Civil Party in 1871.
This situation changed with the Second Militarism. Society understood the need for stable and solid political groups to exist. In 1884 two parties were born, the Democratic Party, founded by Nicolás de Piérola, and the Constitutional Party, headed by Cáceres. That same year the Liberal Party appeared, led by José María Quimper.
In 1891, the National Union Party appeared, with a radical tendency and headed by Manuel González Prada, as well as another organization founded by Mariano Nicolás Valcárcel.
foreign economic dependence
The new economic structure resulted in the monopolization of resources, the arrival of large amounts of foreign investment and complete subordination to foreign markets. This, together with the signing of the Grace contract, caused Peru’s economy to be totally dependent on the outside.
On the other hand, the militarist governments established a policy of severe austerity, which had to be followed both by the State, with the consequent decrease in public investment, and by the citizens.
Governments of the Second Militarism
General Miguel Iglesias (1883-1885)
With the war still going on, Iglesias proclaimed himself president of Peru in 1882. Later, he formed an Assembly to legalize his position.
During his tenure, the military man signed the Treaty of Ancón with Chile, which put an end to the Pacific War and recognized the Chilean victory.
Despite the fact that his period in power was short, Iglesias promoted a series of important measures. Thus, he entrusted Ricardo Palma with the restructuring and reopening of the National Library and ordered the rebuilding of the National University of San Marcos.
His government also established the so-called personal contribution, as well as the «works of the republic», some communal tasks carried out by the indigenous population. This measure ended up provoking rebellions in the Ancash region.
When the Chileans withdrew, General Andrés A. Cáceres, contrary to the concessions made by Iglesias in the Treaty of Ancón, rose up in arms and overthrew the government.
Government of the Council of Ministers (1885-1886)
At the end of the civil war, the Council of Ministers headed by Antonio Arenas Merino took over the provisional government.
Its main function was to call elections, in which there was only one candidate: Andrés A. Cáceres.
First government of Andrés A. Cáceres (1886-1890)
Cáceres focused during this period on rebuilding the country and alleviating the economic crisis in which it was plunged.
To solve the problem of foreign debt, Cáceres signed the Grace Contract with English creditors, through which they assumed the administration of the railways and the exploitation of guano in exchange for freeing the country from debt.
His government also eliminated the fiscal note and established the use of the metallic silver coin. Similarly, he introduced taxes on the consumption of substances such as tobacco, opium or alcohol. Finally, Peru began to exploit its oil.
Government of Remigio Morales Bermúdez (1890-1894)
Cáceres handed over the presidency to Colonel Remigio Morales on August 10, 1890. Upon taking office, he announced that his program would consist of complying with what is reflected in the constitution.
The soldier remained in the presidency until his death, on April 1, 1894. At the head of the Council of Ministers he appointed Mariano Nicolás Valcárcel, who harshly repressed a riot in the Santa Catalina barracks.
The government of Morales Bermúdez had to face the end of the term of the Chilean occupation of Tacna and Arica included in the Treaty of Ancón. According to this agreement, ten years after its signing, a referendum was to be held in those territories to decide whether they would remain in Peru or go definitively to Chile.
Given the differences between the two countries on how to carry out the…