por The Middle Ages It is a period of history that includes from the 11th to the 15th century, although there are small differences of opinion among historians about the exact dates. It is the second half within the traditional division of the medieval period, whose first centuries are called the High Middle Ages.
In recent years, the majority of historiographical currents have divided this Late Middle Ages into two parts. The first part is the so-called Plena, which would last until the 13th century; and a second part of crisis and collapse is what would comprise until the fourteenth century.
The taking of Byzantium into the hands of the Ottoman Empire in 1453 has traditionally been considered the end of this period. Contrary to the usual belief that the Middle Ages were a dark period with little cultural and social relevance, the first centuries of the Low period witnessed numerous changes that would begin to define the Modern Age.
The appearance of the bourgeoisie, the establishment of the borders and the power of the kings or the appearance of the Romanesque and the Gothic are some of these relevant facts.
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historical summary
At the end of the so-called High Middle Ages, Europe and the surrounding countries find themselves with a structure that no longer resembles that of the ancient Roman Empire.
Feudalism has appeared, the Church has increased its power, even affecting kings, and wars have been constant. Meanwhile, a good part of the Iberian Peninsula is still in the hands of the Muslims, and the Persians and Ottomans besiege the borders of the Byzantine Empire.
Finally, the year 1000 brings with it the appearance of the fear of the end of the world: the so-called millenarianism.
Full Middle Ages
The first centuries of the Late Middle Ages have received the name of Plena, given the growth that occurred in many matters and the consolidation of the different European states.
Many of the events that occurred at this time are the seeds of modern Europe. Even so, we must not lose sight of the existence of a very large peasant class that still lived under feudalism in a semi-slavery that kept them bound to the land.
Politically it began with a confrontation between the Church and the different kings and emperors. The emperors wanted to obtain more autonomy and stop being subject to ecclesiastical institutions. Despite the power of the monarchs, on many occasions the papacy had the last word, and even appointed the leaders.
Among the kingdoms that began to consolidate in this period, the heirs of the Carolingian Empire stand out: France and the Holy Roman Empire.
Meanwhile, the Normans settle in what is now northern France, establishing a powerful duchy. They also begin to lay the foundations of what England would be.
In Spain the reconquest advanced, leaving the Muslims practically reduced to the territory of Al-Andalus.
mediaeval crisis
Everything achieved during the first centuries of this period is about to disappear due to the great crisis that devastated Europe in the fourteenth century.
In the context of the crisis, various factors came together that produced a great impact on the economy, demography, and politics. In the fifteenth century the continent began to recover, giving way to the Modern Age.
According to some authors, the great famines that occurred did so as a consequence of some climatic changes and the population growth of previous centuries. In addition, the agriculture of the time was still not very productive. These great famines were capable of significantly lowering the number of inhabitants.
The weakness caused by lack of food also causes the appearance of epidemics. The best known and deadliest was the Black Death, which swept across the continent in several waves, killing between 25 and 50 million people in Europe. The population fell from 80 to 30 million inhabitants in barely a decade.
Finally, it is a period in which several civil wars between different lords take place. Although the states were consolidating, there was still a long way to go before they were stable.
crusades
Another important element in the Late Middle Ages are the crusades. It is about the attempts to conquer the so-called Holy Land and, above all, Jerusalem, which was in Muslim hands.
There are up to eight crusades over the years. The first of these occurs just after the year 1000 and with a great load of religious fanaticism.
Beyond how successful these military expeditions were, they had a great impact on various social, political, and economic aspects at the time.
The first repercussion was to reinforce the power of the papacy, capable of granting bulls and other religious benefits to the nobles who participated.
These gentlemen saw two consequences after participating. Many of them squandered part of the wealth of their countries or regions, remaining at the mercy of their rivals.
However, others managed to strengthen their positions after having won victories in the battle. Finally, the crusades made religious-military orders appear that would acquire a lot of power in European territory, both political and economic.
Many of these orders were related to others of a monastic nature. The Order of the Temple or the Germanic Knights stand out for their power.
Main characteristics of the late middle ages
Strengthening of the monarchy
Tired of the feudal system that gave so much importance to the landlords and the aristocracy, the monarchs undertake the task of strengthening their power at the expense of theirs. In this way, each time they reduce the prerogatives of the nobles and increase theirs.
The growing importance of the cities makes the monarchs lean on the rising bourgeoisie, which begins to acquire economic power. Parliaments even begin to appear to weaken the nobles.
They also strengthen ties with the Church, in order to legitimize themselves more and more as absolute power.
estate society
The social organization of the time was strongly hierarchical, although with a couple of new elements compared to the first feudalism.
In addition, it was an organization based on birth, unable to leave the social stratum of which the family was.
At the top was the king, with increasing power. Below, the aristocracy and nobility, more limited but still with enormous privileges of all kinds.
Next to these stood the clergy. It must be taken into account that many of the religious came from noble families.
At the base was the rest of the population. The changes can be seen in the appearance, along with the vassal peasants, of a small number of free peasants: although they had to continue paying the lords, they were free to change their workplace.
The bourgeois are initially placed at the bottom of the pyramid, but over the years they have gained more importance.
Economy
In the first centuries, during the High Middle Ages, the economy improved a lot.
There was a modernization of certain agricultural techniques, which caused an increase in production. Thus, the Norman plows, crop rotation and the water mill appeared.
This led to the existence of a surplus of food, causing trade to revitalize, since not everything obtained was to be consumed at home. This greater prosperity was translated into a demographic increase.
Although agriculture and livestock were still the foundations of the economy of the time, the growing importance of cities gave rise to a new social class: the bourgeoisie.
In the economic aspect, the dynamics changed somewhat, since it was about artisans or manual workers who were grouped into guilds.
emergence of the bourgeoisie
As mentioned, the growth of cities and the growing importance of some professions that were developed there gave rise to important changes.
Burgos appear: this was the name given to the neighborhoods in which artisans and merchants lived and worked. Because of this, those who lived there were known as bourgeois.
The way to acquire more influence was to group together in guilds that also made cooperation between them easier.
The unions tried to put pressure on the power to obtain improvements in their economic conditions, both in the payment of taxes and in legislation.
Its importance was such that in some cities they became in charge of the defense: each guild paid its own army of mercenaries and was in charge of defending an area of the city.
Religious and military orders
Some reforms carried out in the monasteries made the Church further strengthen its power, in addition to extending its influence territorially.
Perhaps the most important reform is the Cistercian one, led by San Bernardo de Claraval.
San Bernardo is the protagonist in the appearance of other religious orders of a military nature. They were created for the crusades, but some, like the Order of the Temple, acquired enormous economic power.
At one point they were the ones who lent the most money to the King of France, and this gave them a lot of influence.
Art
The styles that predominate during this period are markedly religious in nature. These styles had the material and economic support of the bourgeoisie.
The first universities also began to be founded, also linked to the Church.
Romantic style
It is the first artistic style that appears in almost all the countries of Europe. There are some variations depending on the place, but they maintained a series of characteristics that united them.
The person most responsible for its dissemination was the monastic order of Cluny, reinforced after the reform it underwent. The construction of monasteries and churches spread the Romanesque style throughout the continent.
Among the most important works are the cathedral of Worms (Germany), the cities of Zamora and Ávila (Spain) or the cathedral of Angoulême (France).
Gothic
It appears during the maximum development of cities. Its origin is in the north of France, but it has spread throughout the West since the 13th century.
Within the artistic production in this style, the great cathedrals stand out especially. Faced with the darkness and sobriety of the Romanesque, the Gothic ones are filled with light, rising to a great height.
To build them, it was necessary for numerous technical innovations to appear and for the different unions of workers to collaborate.
In addition, other artistic manifestations given in the Gothic, such as sculpture and painting, began to be independent of architecture.
Some of the most outstanding works are the cathedral of León, Notre Dame de Paris and the Abbey of San Denis.
Historical figures
Next we are going to review some notable characters who lived during the Late Middle Ages. From monarchs and nobles, to clerics, philosophers, navigators, soldiers, writers and artists.
Henry IV
(1050-1106) Holy Roman Emperor between 1084 and 1105. He had a strong contest against the Catholic Church, specifically against Gregory VII.